External Influences on ancient Indian Art & Architecture
What is external influence?
Although a time period or region have identifiable features that are their very own, many regions take art and architectural influences from other cultures sometimes. This occurs when another region invades a foreign region and the former impart different foreign influences on art and architecture such as sophisticated state craft, city planning and cultural impacts to the latter. A particular empire sometimes likes to incorporate different sculptural or architectural elements of a different art tradition into its own not solely for the purpose of enhancing the aesthetic appeal of its art and architectural creations but also due to the fact that they wish to enrich their history and heritage enormously. Scholars identify strong evidences of foreign impacts when they observe that the particular region has some sculpture or architecture that has no resemblance to those of local origins but bear striking or even vague resemblance to those of a region beyond its own territory. These integrations are sometimes very fascinating to muse about because they have been so diligently and intelligently incorporated into a particular culture. No one can visualize such integration or imagine such dexterity in borrowing from a foreign culture unless they experience it with their very own eyes. The visual arts of a particular period does get altered by external inspiration but also gets enriched with new techniques, themes and imagery. These can range from Roman and Greek mythology themes to the incorporation of foreign techniques in Buddhist imagery already used in ancient India.
There are a plethora of instances in ancient Indian art and architecture where a particular dynasty or empire was highly influenced by that of a foreign culture.
For example, the Mauryan empire was influenced by the Persian Achaemenid empire as the former took pillared halls, lion capital, and bull capital from the latter. Similarly, the Kushan empire borrowed sculptural art, portrait sculpture and coins from the Greco Romano empire which had Hellenistic influences.
Different examples/evidences of external influences (i.e. Greco-Romano or Hellenized influence, Persian Achaemenid influence) on art & architecture
Persian Achaemenid influence on Mauryan art and architecture
Maurya dynasty was the first dynasty that ruled the greater part of India. Rise of the empire occurred in the 4th century BCE.
There were 16 Mahajanapadas or Great Settlements which had powerful local rulers and also minor ones. Magdha was such a settlement near Bihar. It was the capital of Maurya dynasty.
Chandragupta Maurya was a king of that empire who extended territorial boundary to all sides and brought the entire empire under one control. Maurya dynasty was established. Magdha art became Indian art. One of the 3 influences on Magdha to become center of art was the Persian Achaemenid empire. It was contemporary to ancient Greece. The Persian Achaemenid empire had territory in the north western region of India.
Alexander the Great, Macedonian king, conquered large territory and in India he defeated Persian ruler. Persian craftsmen went to India and took refuge in Mauryan Dynasty. Mauryan ruler appointed Persian craftsmen to build art. The Mauryan Dynasty had a strong influence of Persian art. Mauryan artist received patronization from Persian artist.
During the Mauryan Dynasty there was abundant use of stone which was impacted by the Persian craftsmen. The use of stone was very limited before then because Indus Valley civilization used mostly clay to build art and architecture.
One great architecture made of stone was the Asoka pillar. It had high polishing for which sunlight could reflect off it. This feature indicates that the outer surface of stone column had Persian impact. The pillar had lion which was a common element of Persian art. In India, lion became the royal symbol of the ruling class.
Ancient city Pataliputra was the capital of Maurya dynasty. It is now known as Patna. Greek ambassador, Megasthenes, gave description of it as a very splendid city.
The city was surrounded by moat or canal. It was a flourished city. It became important later on. It had a number of archaeological sites or palaces. The palaces had a series of 80 pillars surrounded by space. They were enclosed by wall. There was no roof. The pillared halls were reminiscent of those of ancient Persia’s Apadena palace. It was built 200 years before the Mauryan dynasty came into existence. There were similarities between the pillared halls of Mauryan dynasty and that of the Apadena palace. Both had pillar arrangement and no roof on top.
Asoka was the third ruler of the Maurya dynasty and the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya. He built pillars engraved with messages to disseminate Buddhist principles. The pillars were a description of king Ashok himself and they were vital to study the art and architectures of the Mauryan dynasty. The language used to convey the messages was local so that common people can interpret them easily.
The pillar capital of Bulandibagh of Pataliputra had similarity with the Apadena palace pillar capital. The Bulandibagh pillar capital (upper portion of the pillar) was monolithic, meaning it was made of one stone. However, the Apadana palace pillars were not monolithic.
Greco-Romano or Hellenized influence on Kushan empire
The Kushan kingdom was a very powerful kingdom of ancient India. The ruling family of the kingdom developed Buddhism and constructed numerous Buddhist structures although most of them did not practice Buddhism. The great Kushan ruler Kanishka was described in Buddhist literature like Asoka was.
The dynasty did not originate in India. The Kushans were the residents of Kansu region of north west China. They were forced to move westward by the Chinese Han dynasty. They arrived in India and established their empire in Afghanistan, Pakistan, north India and Bangladesh. The territory was extremely large. They had diverse culture. It was a real challenge to rule such a vast and diverse kingdom. Hence the rulers were very diplomatic. To run the kingdom and manage diversity, they established two different capitals: Mathura and Begram. To communicate with large territory, they had two different coin systems.
Begram preferred Greek and Roman gods on coins. The Kushans were the patrons of two schools of art:
· Gandharan School of Art in Begram which was the entire north west India
· Mathura School of Art which was 50 miles south of Delhi
Gandhara was ruled in order by the Persian Achaemenid empire, Macedonian king Alexander, Greco Bactrian kingdom, the Mauryans and then the Kushans. The region Gandhara included west bank of Indus. The Gandharan and Mathura schools of art had individual art traditions. The Gandharan school of art had Greco Roman influences.
The rigid facial expressions, folded cloth, wavy hair treatment, muscular physique, beard, shoes and halosetc had the impact of Greco Roman and Hellenistic art traditions. These features are clearly evident in marble statues, marine deities, and Atlas sculptures of the Gandharan art. The most important feature of the Gandharan art is the human form of Buddha which did not appear before. The life events of Buddha or The Four Great Miracles of his life were depicted in sculptural art. The Bodhisattva Maitreya which is a Buddhist deity was also depicted. All these Buddhist sculptures mentioned had Greco Romano and Hellenistic impacts.
The Mathura school of art’s portrait sculptures also had Greco Romano and Hellenistic art tradition influences. The Mathura school of art was also aware about those art developments in Greek and Roman empires like the Gandharan school of art.
Reasons (e.g. trade connection, cultural connection, etc.) for external influence or the historical context of external influence
The Maurya Empire
In the Maurya period, contacts with the Greek kingdom were well established as it was found from the inscriptions of Asoka. These contacts with Greece and Hellenism were active since the time of Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the dynasty. The inscriptions of Asoka reveal that there were connections between the northwestern region and further beyond with the Greek rulers. The penetration of Hellenistic ideas into Maurya art occurred due to Asoka. Asoka, the son of Chandragupta Maurya, had friendly relations with the Hellenistic world because he wanted them to pursue his policy of Dhammavijaya. He sent envoys to the Greek kingdom to encourage the following of the principles of Dhamma. This created cultural contacts between Kushans and Greeks which is chronicled by Greek ambassador Megasthenes. There were heightened social connections, marriages and trade between the two kingdoms mentioned.
Hellenistic ideals were accepted and adapted to merge with Indian belief systems and religious ideals. Asoka evolved and modified the Hellenistic elements to go with the socio religious ideals of the Maurya dynasty.
Alexander the Great defeated the Persian ruler in India when he invaded the region. He brought Greek art, philosophy, literature and science with him to this region. When he left India, he left his territories to his generals which allowed the rise of the Maurya dynasty. The youthful and courageous king Chandragupta Maurya liberated the northwestern India from the Greeks and founded the Maurya kingdom.
He had close relationships with the Greeks. Chandragupta married the daughter of a Greek king. This friendship was reinforced by the Greek ambassadorsMegasthenes and Daimachus. Megasthenes’ accounts reveal the cultural interactions between the two empires.
Chandragupta’s son Bindusara asked the Greek emperor Antiochus to send him wine and raisins which were in high demand in the Maurya empire. The diplomatic connections between the two empires were recorded in the inscriptions of Asoka pillars which referred to the names of five Greek kings in whose empires Buddhist missionary activities were flourishing.
Due to the increase of commercial and political activities, the number of visitors between the Greek and Maurya empires increased. Many Greeks converted to Buddhism and Hinduism. The Greek king Menander adopted Buddhism with an open heart. Some Greeks donated to Buddhist caves.
The Garuda pillar at Vidisha was the creation of Heliodorus, the son of a Greek envoy. This illustrates the fact that India had an importance in the Greek world. The Greeks inspired enormous influence on the cultural life of the Maurya period in art and architecture, philosophy, drama, coinage and science.
The Persian invasion did not affect the Maurya empire greatly in a political context but the contact between the Maurya empire and the Persians was retained even after the fall of the Persian Achaemenid empire. This communication through both the sea and land established trade relations between them. The Persian rulers promoted exploration, trade and commerce. Their exploration of the Indus and the Arabian Sea created an entirely new water pathway.
The western and north western parts of the Persian empire were extended till Asia Minor in the west. This allowed Indian trade to flourish. Indian ivory and teak were popular items in the Persian marketplaces. They were used in the construction of the palace of king Darius, a notable Persian ruler.
The Indian traders and merchants went to distant regions in the vast Persian empire to send their goods. Similarly, Persian goods also flowed to India.
The Kushan Empire
Ancient Gandhara was situated in modern Afghanistan and Pakistan. Though there were regional differences, their artistic motifs reflected a common cultural legacy and heritage known as Silk Roads. Gandhara was an integral crossroads from where art and architecture of the Kushan empire was shared with Afghanistan, Central Asia, and also the Indian region Mathura. Excavations in Begram, Taxila and Mathura reveal that Gandharan art was inspired by Hellenistic period. Kushan art was constantly getting modified as a result. It absorbed Greco Romano traditions and Western trends through the sharing of international trade and commerce. Nonetheless, it always maintained its uniqueness, keeping in mind the cultural demands of the inhabitants, and the integrity of local artisans and craftsmanship.
When the Kushans ruled, northwest India and neighbouring areas took part in seagoing trade and commerce along the Silk Road to China. The word Kushan comes from the Chinese word Guishang, which refers to Yuezhi, Indo Europeans who lived in northwestern China until they were driven out of their territory by another clan. The Yuezhi moved to the south into the northwest Indian region called Gandhara which is modern Pakistan and Afghanistan and they established a capital near Kabul. They knew the use of the Greek alphabet and the Kushan ruler, Kujula’s son, was the first ruler to issue gold coins that looked like the Roman aureus which was a coin of the Roman Empire,worth 25 silver denarii and which was exchanged through the caravan routes.
Kanishka, the third Kushan ruler, ruled from the late first to the early second century AD a large territory from the Aral Sea through modern day Uzbekistan, Afghanistan and Pakistan into northern India. The territory was spread from the east as far as Benares and to the south as far as Sanchi. They had diplomatic connections with the Roman Empire and Han China. The seagoing trade of the Indian Ocean and the commerce of the Silk Route were linked by the presence of the Kushan Empire, which gave the opportunity for trade and commerce. It was an era of wealth and prosperity, with huge mercantile exchange and a rich urban life. Therefore, trade and commerce gained huge momentum during the Kushan period. There was the spread of Buddhist thought and visual arts and cultures.
Gandhara at the center of the Kushan kingdom was inhabited by multiethnic people who were secular. It had a convenient location, and could be accessed via the Silk Routes and the ports on the Arabian Sea. Gandhara was ruled by the Mauryans, Alexander the Great, and his Indo Greek successors. The mixing of people gave rise to a wide ranging culture, which was evidently expressed in the Kushan visual arts. Hence, culture was flourishing at the time enormously.Greek and Roman mythology themes were borrowed initially, and then Buddhist imagery was used such as the Buddha in human form and the Bodhisattvas.
In 152 CE, Kanishka invaded modern day western China and present day central India. The captured empire consisted of a route going from Kushan kingdom and China that created trade connections with the Roman Empire and Han China. The security provided by the Kushan empire also created these trade opportunities.
Their gold came through the Silk Route from Rome. There was so much gold coming from Rome that the Imperial Court banned it eventually. The kushan empire became broke as a result.
The kushans replaced the Indo Greek kingdom with Greco Buddhist traditions. They patronized Buddhist institutions which caused them to emerge as a commercial power.
Nero from the Roman Empire made a diplomatic agreement with the Kushans. The Greco India region and imperial Rome were connected along the Silk Road.
A school of art that is highly influenced by external art: Gandharan School of Art
The Atlas sculpture, marine deities and Palmyra marble statues had strong impacts of Greco Romano and Hellenistic art traditions. The sculptures had rigid facial expressions, which was mask like or no expression at all. The perfect and muscular male physique was reminiscent of the well structured body of Zeus who was a Greek god. The hair treatment is wavy. The Palmyra sculpture is even wearing a cap. The marine deity figure has a beard. The cloth is heavily folded like Roman Toga and Zeus in Greek art traditions. The Atlas sculpture is not Indian like at all with its wavy hair, muscular body, rigid expressions and presence of shoes.
This was the first time that the human or anthropomorphic image of Buddha was depicted. It also resembled Greek Roman traditions. It has a halo behind its head. It is very muscular. These two features are clearly seen in Zeus.
The life events of Buddha became a popular subject of sculptural art. The gift of Jetavana garden in Jataka story was depicted. Here Buddha was represented in human form for the first time. He has a halo around his head. Behind him stands the merchant Anathapindika holding a water pot that he intended to pour over the Bodhi tree that represented Buddha. Gautama’s presence can be felt in the tree and there is also a human image of him in the sculptural art.
The Four Great Miracles of Buddha’s life were carved on the base of the stupa of the monastery.
The Four Great Miracles
The Miracle of the Birth
Gautama was born in a garden. His mother Maya Devi is holding the branch of a banyan tree during birth and on the side of her hip is child Siddhartha. He has a halo round his head. Indra came down on earth to receive child Gautama. Maya Devi’s clothes are not Indian as she is wearing a gown, not a sari. The gown has heavy folds. Her upper part is not naked as seen in Indian art traditions but she is wearing a full sleeved blouse. She has a flower garland and wraith in her hair which is never seen in Indian sculptural art. Her hair is wavy. Indra is wearing a head gear which is not a turban. Their body shapes are perfect.
Miracle of Enlightenment
Mara the demon and his associates attempt to attack Buddha who remains tranquil and has the earth touch position, the bhumisparsha mudra.
The Miracle of the First Sermon
At Sarnath, Gautama gave his first sermon “turning the wheel of law”. There is a pair of deer in the deer park. Chakra or wheel represents teaching. There are Buddha’s associates. The physique of Gautama is strong. Both of his shoulders are covered, not one, which is usually seen in Mathura art.
The Miracle of the Passing Away of Buddha
Gautama is on his dying bed in Mahaparinirvana. People are grieving behind him. Near his head there is a naked figure from the Ajivika sect informing associate of Gautama, Mahakasyapa, about his death.
Standing individual figure of Buddha
It has perfect physique and well built muscle. It has wavy hair which is a Hellenistic feature. It has mask like facial expression which is rigid. The facial expression is adolescent. The heavy folds in its cloth make the well built muscle underneath visible. It has halo which was seen in West Asia. Both shoulders are covered by monastic cloth, not one which is only seen in Mathura art. The halo has Hellenistic origin. Ushnishaon Gautama’s head is similar to Greek krobylos or top knot on the head.
He is standing by putting pressure on only left leg. The right knee is pronounced, bent and protruded as a result. This is usually seen in Greco Romano art traditions.
These features of the sculptural art portray the fact that it has Greco Romano and Hellenistic influences.
Bodhisattva Maitreya
The Bodhisattva Maitreya, a Buddhist deity who attained Nirvana but sacrifices it to guide all beings to it has a sculptural art that has Greco Romano and Hellenistic impacts.
It is prince like, a depiction of Buddha in his early life. He has elaborate jewellery, pearl string in hair, necklace and bangles. He has footwear on which is not seen in Indian art traditions. He is not wearing dhuti but Roman toga type clothing, which has deep folds. He has a moustache which is not seen in ancient Indian art. He has no turban. His hair is long.
All the Gandharan sculptural art were depicted in grey stone.
Five different examples/evidences of external influence in art & architecture
Sculptural art
The Atlas sculpture from the Gandharan school of art had strong influences of Greco Romano and Hellenistic art traditions. The sculpture had rigid facial expressions, which was mask like or no expression at all. The perfect and muscular male physique was reminiscent of the well structured body of Zeus who was a Greek god. The hair treatment is wavy. The cloth is heavily folded like Roman Toga and Zeus in Greek art traditions. It is not Indian like at all with its wavy hair, muscular body, rigid expressions and presence of shoes or boots.
Terracotta art
Terracotta art in Bulandibagh, Pataliputra and Mathura had Greco Romano and Hellenistic art influences. Since Hellenistic contacts were present even after the fall of the Mauryas, there were Hellenistic motifs in terracotta art. The terracotta sculptures had smooth skin and luminous bodies. They were as good in quality as those of the immaculate Sarnath sculptures. Scholars say that the sophistication and perfectness of these terracotta sculptures could not be achieved by Indian artisans.
There is a particular style called Daedalic style which was observed in Pataliputra and in the Maurya Dynasty mother goddesses’ heads. The style is named after craftsman Daedalus meaning “skilled one”. It has a triangular face, with a flat at the top, round chin, and the hair is arranged in a fringe over the forehead and is falling down on both sides of the face like today’s judges’ wigs. There are no folds in the cloth which is attached by a belt. There are both standing and seated figueres.
The Tanagra style is another one practiced during the Hellenistic age. Terracotta art of this kind is found in Athens, Tanagra, Alexandria, and other Hellenistic regions. The common subject matter of this art is a woman standing in a natural and frozen pose. The back is folded but not very detailed. The figure is standing on a thin and rectangular base. The drapery is tightly stretched in two directions. The terracotta art of Pataliputra and Bulandibagh were inspired by this style.
Pillared hall
Ancient city Pataliputra had a number of archaeological sites or palaces. The palaces had about 80 pillars which were surrounded by empty space. The pillared hall was enclosed by wall. It had no roof. The pillared halls were similar to those of ancient Persia’s Apadena palace, which was constructed about 200 years before the Mauryan dynasty came into existence. The pillared halls of Mauryan dynasty and that of the Apadena palace looked strikingly similar. This is due to the fact that both had pillar arrangement and no roof. Both had inscriptions engraved on them. It is thought that Asoka got the notion of engraving proclamations on the pillars from the Achaemenids.
Asoka built pillars engraved with messages on them to convey Buddhist principles. The pillars were a description of king Asoka himself and they were an integralpart of the art and architectures of the Mauryan dynasty. The language used to disseminate the messages was local and simple so that common people can understand them.
The pillar capital of Bulandibagh of Pataliputra was strikingly similar to the Apadena palace pillar capital. The Bulandibagh pillar capital was monolithic. However, the Apadana palace pillars were not found to be monolithic. The Bulandibagh pillar capital was divided into 2 segments: shaft and capital. The shaft is circular and tapered, wide at bottom and narrow at top. It is highly polished which indicates external Persian influence.
Asoka shared his message by heavily engraving on the pillars. The capital consists of:
· Finial : an animal on top
· Abacus: on which the animal sits. It was plain/ circular/ decorated. There were one or two animals which were either lion or bull.
· Persepolitan / lotus bell: below abacus. It is an inverted lotus. This is an evidence of external Achaemenid art tradition.
The pillar capital at Sarnath has 4 lions on the finial pulling an invisible chariot. Lion was a royal symbol or symbolized Asoka or Buddha.
Scholars believed that all the pillars of the Maurya dynasty used the existing foundation of the Persian Achaemenid pillars. They were not initiated by Asoka. The fact that the foundational pillars had no surface polish and their craftsmanship led scholars to conclude that they were not initiated in the Mauryan dynasty.
Coinage
In order to run such a vast kingdom and manage diversity, the Kushan rulers used two different coinage systems for Begram and Mathura. Begram had close contact with Iran, Afghanistan, and Greek and Roman Empire. This is why they liked to use Greek, Roman and Iranian gods on their coins. They were familiar with those art traditions and people in their kingdom always accepted those.
The local Kharasthi script derived from Aramic with Greek letters on the coins described Kanishka as Shah of the Shahs. The Greek lettering was popular and accepted in Begram.
Portrait sculpture
The portrait sculpture was a sculptural art of Mathura school of art. It depicted Raja Kanishka as a resemblance to Roman emperor Julius Caesar. The Kushans were highly aware about the art and architectural developments of Greco Romano Empire. They were also extremely influenced by Hellenistic art traditions.
The sculpture has a bold and rigid posture, because it represents one of the most powerful rulers of the world, Julius Caesar. The sculpture illustrates his arrogance, dominating power and commanding attitude. The sculpture has a sword on its left hand and mace on its right hand. The portrait sculptures of other Kushan rulers were also constructed.
The sculpture is missing its head and hands which were intentionally destroyed. It has no resemblance to ancient Indian art because it is wearing a coat. In ancient Indian art traditions, we see sculptures sporting dhuti and the upper part is usually naked which is not seen with this portrait sculpture. The coat that it is sporting was worn during tour to China which was the original empire of the Kushans to observe some occasion. The sculpture is wearing shoes or boots which is also not seen in ancient Indian art traditions.
We come to know about the missing upper segment of the portrait sculpture from coins. Kushan king Kansihka was engraved on the coins. He has a beard and a cap. His left hand is holding a spear and right hand is carrying a pot which was used for donating something.
Conclusion
When a particular culture gets inspired by the visual arts of another, the exchange of new ideas, beliefs, thoughts, political ideologies, religious ideals and socio religious viewpoints occur tremendously. For example, the depiction of mask like and rigid features and wavy hair of Bodhisattva deity constructed in Kushan empire reflect the fact that religious elements in sculptural art were modified by borrowing those characteristics from the Hellenistic period. This also facilitated the spread of Buddhism as this was the first time when the human form of Gautama was depicted.
Asoka learnt about inscribing his proclamations from the Persian Achaemenid empire which helped spread the religion Buddhism. He engraved those inscriptions in order to transmit his religious message and he was very successful as this helped broadcast the teachings of Buddhist ideology enormously. Also today we come to know about Asoka’s messages and Buddhist thoughts from those inscriptions on the pillar capital of Bulandibagh in Pataliputra which was the capital of Maurya dynasty.
These modifications are part of aesthetic interchange between cultures and their visual allure highly appeals to the senses of the local inhabitants. They are cultural artifacts or heritage that were preserved for centuries and passed on to modern world. Through external impacts of foreign lands, a particular culture’s people come to learn about the artistic elements, territorial ideals, techniques, and imagery used in sculptural art or architectures. They also get information about mythology of another religion. For example, the incorporation of wavy hair and folded drapery which was taken from Greco Romano empire illustrates the fact that their mythological gods and goddesses had similar features.
The external inspirations are a testament of trade and cultural influence between empires. There was extensive trade, commerce and mercantile activities between the Greco Romano empire and ancient Indian kingdoms which helped the spread of ideas of sculptural art, paintings and architectures. The spread of cultural ideas along the Silk Roads via land and the sea became a pivotal heritage during that time. The external impacts in culture are a burning living proof of the solid and concrete legacy of the Silk Routes.
The integrations are mind-blowing and are an exemplary statement of the spellbinding and spectacular culture of the Greco Romano empire, Hellenistic period and the Persian Achaemenids. They have enhanced the cultural arts of ancient Indian kingdoms by various modifications and refinements. They have not distorted the visual arts of Pataliputra or Gandhara; rather they have polished and uplifted the existing sculptural and architectural elements. These inclusions are dynamic to say the least and sophisticated without a doubt. They are the results of diligent efforts made by the dexterous and hard working artisans and are glorious examples of breathtaking and captivating craftsmanship.
